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Thermodynamics

Heat, temperature, entropy, and energy transfer. The science of engines, refrigerators, and the universe’s arrow of time.

The four laws of thermodynamics explained with key formulas and a heat-engine diagram

The Laws of Thermodynamics Explained

A clear, complete guide to the four laws of thermodynamics — the zeroth, first, second and third — with simple definitions, key formulas, worked examples and an interactive heat-engine lab.

Specific heat capacity comparison showing equal heat warms iron faster than aluminium and water

What Is Specific Heat Capacity?

Specific heat capacity is the heat needed to raise 1 kg of a substance by 1 °C. This guide explains the Q=mcΔT formula with a materials table, worked examples and clear FAQs.

Heat vs temperature comparison showing two beakers at the same temperature holding different amounts of thermal energy

Heat vs Temperature: What’s the Difference?

Heat and temperature are not the same thing. Learn the difference, the Q=mcΔT formula, real-world examples and worked problems — including why two objects can share a temperature yet hold very different amounts of heat.

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